Pyrrho was a Greek philosopher who lived from approximately 365-275 BCE. He is best known for developing an influential school of philosophy known as Pyrrhonism, which emphasized skepticism and suspension of judgment. Some key points about what Pyrrho was known for include:
- Founder of Pyrrhonism – Pyrrho is regarded as the founder of the Pyrrhonist school of philosophical skepticism. The Pyrrhonists emphasized the fallibility of sense perceptions and human knowledge claims.
- Skepticism and suspending judgment – Pyrrho taught that we should refrain from making dogmatic assertions and instead suspend judgment on the nature of things. This would lead to mental tranquility.
- Critique of dogmatism – Pyrrho was critical of other philosophical schools like Stoicism that made confident pronouncements about metaphysics and ethics. Pyrrho argued that certainty was unattainable.
- Emphasis on practical ethics – Although skeptical of dogmas, Pyrrho still emphasized practical ethics and proper behavior in everyday life according to custom and law.
- Influenced later skeptics – Pyrrho’s arguments influenced later skeptical philosophers such as Sextus Empiricus and inspired the development of skepticism in ancient Greece and Rome.
In summary, Pyrrho pioneered a radical skeptical philosophy that emphasized suspending strong claims about the nature of reality and living according to local customs and traditions. His school of thought deeply shaped the evolution of Hellenistic philosophy.
Pyrrho’s Life and Background
Pyrrho was born around 365 BCE in Elis, on the Ionian Sea in what is now western Greece. Little is concretely known about the details of his life. He is believed to have studied philosophy and rhetoric in Elis before traveling to India with Alexander the Great’s army where he encountered Persian magi and Indian gymnosophists. These influences shaped the evolution of his thought.
After returning to Greece around 324 BCE, Pyrrho settled in Elis and taught his philosophy there before moving to Athens late in life. In Athens, he became friends with the philosopher Anaxarchus and influenced the development of skepticism in that city. Pyrrho lived to around 275 BCE, to the remarkably old age of 90.
Notable aspects about Pyrrho’s background include:
- From Elis in western Greece
- Traveled to India with Alexander the Great
- Encountered Persian and Indian thought
- Returned to Greece and taught in Elis and Athens
- Lived to around 90 years of age
- Contemporary of other Greek thinkers like Epicurus
This unique biographical background shaped Pyrrho’s unorthodox philosophy that was skeptical of traditional Greek dogmas. His encounter with Eastern thought seems to have inspired his radical questioning of the basis of knowledge.
Founding of Pyrrhonism
Pyrrho founded the philosophical school of Pyrrhonism whose core teaching was a radical skepticism that recommended suspension of judgment on dogmatic claims about the nature of things.
Some key tenets of Pyrrhonism included:
- Suspending belief – Pyrrhonists argued that we cannot know things with certainty and should refrain from dogmatism. We should suspend belief rather than affirming or denying claims.
- Critique of sense perception – Our senses are fallible and cannot be relied on. Different people perceive things differently, so truth based on perception is unreliable.
- Critique of causation – We cannot confidently determine causes and effects. What we take to be a cause may not necessarily produce an effect.
- Critique of inference – Our inductive and deductive inferences about things contain uncertainties and assumptions that may be erroneous.
- Epochē – This Greek term refers to the practice of suspending judgment about the real nature of things as a path to tranquility.
By questioning the basis of knowledge, Pyrrho’s philosophy stood in stark contrast to the Stoics, Epicureans, and dogmatic Platonists and Aristotelians of his era. His arguments would later influence thinkers like Sextus Empiricus.
Skepticism about Ethics and Virtue
In the realm of ethics, Pyrrho also advocated a form of skepticism, questioning traditional assumptions about virtues and vices. Some key aspects of his ethical skepticism included:
- Critique of conventions – What societies deem good or bad is not fixed by nature but variable according to customs and laws.
- No universal prescriptions – There are no ethical precepts that are universally and objectively true in all times and cultures.
- Perspectivism – Actions may be simultaneously good and bad from different perspectives. There are no moral absolutes.
- Suspending valuation – We should suspend positive or negative value judgments about presumed virtues and vices.
- Ataraxia – Proper skepticism can bring freedom from disturbance (ataraxia) and peace of mind.
So while not rejecting ethics outright, Pyrrho disputed any dogmatic listing of virtues and vices as being absolute and objective for all people. His ethics were relativistic and based on attaining tranquility.
Practical Ethics
Despite his philosophical skepticism, Pyrrho still endorsed observance of laws and customs in daily life. Some aspects of his practical ethics included:
- Following conventions – It is prudent to follow the dominant morals and laws of one’s society.
- Wise passivity – We should go with the flow rather than trying to definitively determine absolute right and wrong.
- Ataraxia – By suspending judgment, we can attain tranquility and freedom from anxiety.
- Proper behavior – It is best to behave appropriately according to prevailing norms.
- Non-dogmatism – While observing conventions, we need not affirm them as universally true.
So while a philosophical skeptic, Pyrrho did advocate following local traditions as a pragmatic means for attaining peace of mind and smooth social functioning. He was not advocating lawlessness or immorality.
Influence on Ancient Philosophy
Pyrrho’s school of Pyrrhonian skepticism deeply shaped later ancient philosophy and helped counterbalance the rise of dogmatism in Greece and Rome. Some of his key influences include:
- Sextus Empiricus – This late Greek skeptic extensively developed Pyrrhonian philosophy in writings like Outlines of Pyrrhonism.
- Ancient medicine – Pyrrhonism influenced medical skeptics who emphasized empiricism over dogma.
- Roman philosophy – Thinkers like Cicero discussed Pyrrhonian viewpoints, helping spread them.
- Neo-Platonists – Later Platonists incorporated some skeptical arguments in critiquing materialism.
- Perspectivism – The idea truth is perspectival arose from Pyrrhonian relativism.
- Pragmatism – Pyrrho’s ethical practices inspired pragmatic philosophy.
So while not widely embraced, Pyrrhonism remained an influential counterpoint to dogmatism in ancient thought, emphasizing critical inquiry and non-sectarianism. Traces of Pyrrho’s skepticism remain in modern scientific empiricism and antifoundationalism.
Comparison to Other Philosophers
It is illustrative to compare and contrast Pyrrho’s philosophy with his contemporaries:
Plato
- Pyrrho critiqued Plato’s metaphysical claims about eternal Forms as undemonstrated dogma.
- Pyrrho questioned Plato’s Theory of Recollection and conception of knowledge as latent within the soul.
- Both valued wisdom and peace of mind but took opposing views on skepticism.
Aristotle
- Aristotle asserted logical principles of non-contradiction and the excluded middle. Pyrrho criticized these as dogmatic.
- Aristotle sought definitive causes in nature. Pyrrho argued causes were uncertain.
- Both valued empirical observation but Pyrrho was more skeptical of conclusions.
Stoics
- Stoics claimed ethics could be determined through reason alone. Pyrrho saw ethics as contextual and changeable.
- Stoics emphasized virtue and duty. Pyrrho was skeptical of universal virtues.
- Stoics aimed for apatheia through reason. Pyrrho sought ataraxia through suspending judgment.
Epicureans
- Epicureans sought truth through empirical observation. Pyrrho found sense perception unreliable.
- Epicureans advocated refined pleasures. Pyrrho was indifferent to pleasures.
- Both schools sought mental tranquility but took different approaches.
While they differed significantly, comparing Pyrrho to other major Greek schools helps illustrate the originality and novelty of Pyrrhonian skepticism in its historical context.
Pyrrho’s Lasting Legacy
Although his school declined after ancient times, Pyrrho left a lasting legacy as a thinker who questioned the possibility of certainty and the basis of knowledge claims. Elements of his philosophy reemerged among medieval Islamic and European scholars, helping pave the way for modern philosophy. Pyrrho demonstrated intellectual honesty by admitting the limitations of dogmatism. Key aspects of his legacy include:
- Questioning claims to truth and knowledge
- Introducing systematic philosophical skepticism
- Underscoring the uncertainty of sense perceptions
- Critiquing the dogmas of other schools
- Inspiring empiricist and pragmatic philosophies
- Anticipating principles of modern science
- Valuing tranquility and freedom from disturbance
While often overlooked today, Pyrrho inaugurated the tradition of systematic skepticism in Western thought. The insights of this unique Greek philosopher continue to resonate. His legacy remains relevant for an age still seeking wisdom, knowledge, and peace of mind.
Conclusion
In summary, Pyrrho of Elis was a seminal Greek philosopher best known for founding the school of Pyrrhonian skepticism. Denying the possibility of attaining certainty in knowledge, Pyrrho advocated suspending belief and avoiding dogmatism as the path to mental tranquility. Although often caricatured as a complete skeptic denying reality, Pyrrho still endorsed following local laws and customs in daily life as a pragmatic guide to ethical behavior. His novel arguments critiquing contemporary philosophies and emphasizing fallibility left a legacy that influenced ancient and modern thought. Pyrrho remains a notable philosopher for his intellectual honesty in questioning the limits of knowledge and wisdom. While not always easy to interpret, his insights about human epistemological limitations and the contradictions of dogmatism give Pyrrho an enduring relevance as a philosophical thinker.
