The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is an invasive bird species that was introduced to North America in the late 19th century. Since then, it has spread rapidly across the continent, becoming one of the most numerous and widespread bird species in North America. The European starling is now found throughout most of the United States and southern Canada.
Original Range and Introduction to North America
The European starling is native to Europe and parts of western Asia and northern Africa. Its natural range extends from Great Britain and Portugal in the west to western Siberia in the east, and from Iceland and Scandinavia in the north to northern Africa and the Middle East in the south.
The European starling was introduced to North America in the 1890s in an attempt to bring all the birds mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare to the New World. A group called the American Acclimatization Society reportedly released around 100 starlings in New York’s Central Park in 1890 and 1891. Another release of 40–50 pairs occurred two decades later in Oregon. From these small founding populations, the European starling rapidly expanded its range across North America.
Current Distribution in the United States
The European starling now occupies a range stretching across almost all of the contiguous United States. Starlings are found in both rural and urban habitats across the country. Their range extends north into southern Canada and Alaska and south through Mexico into Central America.
Here is a look at where the European starling is most abundant in the major regions of the continental United States:
Northeast
European starlings are extremely common across the northeastern United States, occurring year-round in both urban and agricultural areas. They are numerous throughout New England, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and West Virginia. Highest populations are often found in cities, on farms with livestock, and near other disturbed habitats like landfills.
Southeast
The European starling inhabits all states across the southeastern US. Large populations occur year-round in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Louisiana. As in the Northeast, starlings thrive in human-dominated landscapes like suburbs, croplands, and pastures in this region.
Midwest
European starlings are abundant and widespread throughout the midwestern United States. They occur year-round across a diverse range of habitats in Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Dakotas. Highest densities are often found on livestock farms. Urban and suburban areas also support large starling populations.
Southwest
The European starling has a year-round presence across most of the southwestern US, including California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas. Densities are lower in arid desert regions. Starlings thrive in agricultural areas, parks, and cities across the Southwest.
Northwest
European starlings inhabit all states in the northwestern US and are found year-round in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. They reach their northern limit in southeast Alaska. Starlings are most abundant in lowland areas with farms, towns, and parks that provide food and nesting sites.
West Coast
Along the Pacific Coast, European starlings occur year-round from southern British Columbia down through California. They thrive in urban and suburban habitats from Vancouver and Seattle southward to San Diego and Los Angeles. High numbers breed inland in agricultural valleys. Coastal populations decline from north to south.
Habitats
The European starling occupies an extremely diverse array of habitats across its introduced North American range. Key habitat types include:
– Urban – Abundant in cities, suburbs, parks, landfills, and other developed areas that provide nest sites and food sources. Often the most densely populated habitat.
– Agricultural – Thrive around farms and ranches, especially those with livestock. Feed on grains from crop fields also.
– Open woodlands – Nest in tree cavities in open forests, woodlots, riparian areas. Forage in grasslands and fields nearby.
– Alpine meadows – Breed in mountain meadows up to treeline in western mountains during summer. Migrate downslope for winter.
– Coastal – Locally common along coasts, preferring beaches, docks, marshes, and other open habitats near water.
– Arid regions – Present but generally scarce in deserts and dry shrublands lacking cavities for nesting.
Diet
The European starling is an omnivorous species that feeds on a wide variety of plant and animal matter. Key food sources include:
– Insects – Beetles, flies, moths, caterpillars, ants, bees, wasps, and others. Usually the most important food.
– Fruit – Berries and other soft fruits are favored, including those from exotic plants.
– Seeds – Variety of grass, grain, and weed seeds, especially from farm fields and bird feeders.
– Livestock food – Grain-based feed and protein pellets for cattle, pigs, chickens, etc.
– Human food waste – Scavenges readily at landfills, compost piles, and outdoor restaurants.
– Nestlings are fed regurgitated insects and other protein-rich foods. Adults switch to more plant material when feeding offspring.
Breeding
– Nesting – European starlings nest in cavities, especially those in trees, birdhouses, and human structures. They lay 4-7 pale blue eggs.
– Nest material – Nests are constructed from grasses, twigs, and feathers, with a lining of finer materials. Nest height is typically 15-30 feet above ground.
– Territory – Males establish breeding territories around nest sites, though areas often overlap. Highly aggressive in defending nest areas.
– Timing – Starlings in the northern parts of range breed from April-July. Those in south breed February-May. Two broods per year is common.
– Pairs – Monogamous pairs form during breeding season. Males gather nest material while female constructs nest over 6-10 days.
– Incubation – Female incubates eggs for 10-13 days before they hatch. Both parents feed nestlings. Young fledge around 21 days after hatching.
Population and Conservation Status
– Population – The European starling has a global population of around 220 million individuals. North American populations number around 200 million.
– Invasive status – Starlings compete with native cavity-nesting birds and cause agricultural damage. Listed as an invasive pest species in the U.S. and Canada.
– Population control – Lethal control methods such as poisoning roosts have been used to reduce local populations. Trapping programs also conducted. Preventing access to nesting and roosting sites is best long-term control method.
– Legal status – The European starling is not protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in the U.S. and can be controlled without a permit. It is listed as a nuisance species in many states.
Conclusion
In less than 130 years after its introduction, the European starling has occupied a massive range spanning the entire contiguous United States. Abundant year-round populations now inhabit urban, suburban, and agricultural landscapes from coast to coast. The starling’s ability to exploit human-altered habitats and spread rapidly in North America make it one of the most successful avian invaders. Ongoing control efforts aim to reduce starling populations in areas where they cause the most damage or compete with declining native bird species. But the remarkable success of the starling in colonizing the majority of North America will ensure its prominent place in the continent’s avifauna for the foreseeable future.
