The European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is a medium-sized songbird that is native to Europe, parts of Asia, and North Africa. However, over the past couple centuries, the European Starling has become established in many other parts of the world, including North America. So how did this Old World bird end up living in the New World? And just how widespread is it in the United States today?
In short, yes, there are European Starlings found throughout the United States. But the story of how they got there and their current status is an interesting one.
History of European Starlings in the United States
The presence of European Starlings in North America is directly tied to a few releases of the birds in New York City in the 1890s. A wealthy pharmaceutical industrialist named Eugene Schieffelin was involved in these intentional bird releases. He was an avid Shakespeare enthusiast and the chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, which aimed to introduce all birds mentioned in Shakespeare’s works to North America.
Schieffelin released approximately 100 European Starlings in Central Park in New York City in 1890 and 1891. It’s believed he wanted the birds to thrive in their new home as a sort of living monument to Shakespeare, who mentioned starlings in his works. The first release did not lead to a population becoming established. But the second release was successful. And from that small founding population, European Starlings spread rapidly across the continent.
Within about 50 years, European Starlings had expanded their range to the Rocky Mountains. And by 1942, they were sighted in Juneau, Alaska. Today, they have one of the largest ranges of any North American bird, breeding from northern Canada down through Central America.
So in just over 100 years, these Old World birds went from a couple dozen individuals released in New York to tens of millions spread across North and Central America. They are now abundant year-round residents across almost the entire continental United States.
Early Rapid Population Growth
After those initial successful releases of just over 100 birds in the 1890s, the population of European Starlings in North America grew astonishingly quickly.
By 1942, just five decades after the Central Park releases, the starling population in North America was estimated at over 140 million birds. That represents one of the most rapid and expansive colonizations of an introduced bird species ever documented.
Several biological factors helped European Starlings prosper in their new home continent:
– Diet – They are omnivores and scavengers, able to adapt to a wide variety of food sources, ranging from fruits and seeds to insects and even backyard bird feeders. This varied diet allows them to thrive across diverse regions.
– Reproduction – European Starlings are prolific breeders. They start breeding early in spring, with each pair capable of raising two or three broods per year. Brood sizes are large, with 4-6 eggs typical. This fast reproductive rate allows populations to grow exponentially.
– Cavity nesting – They nest in cavities, including artificial cavities like building crevices and nest boxes. This wealth of potential nesting sites facilitates larger populations.
– Sociality – They are social and highly communal birds. They nest in dense colonies, forage in large flocks, and roost in groups of thousands or more in winter. There is strength in numbers for expanding populations.
With all these advantages, European Starlings had no trouble rapidly colonizing their way across North America in just a few decades.
Current North American Population
Today, more than 100 years after their introduction, European Starlings remain thriving and abundant across North America. However, their population growth has slowed from its initial explosive pace.
Current estimates put the North American breeding population at around 200 million birds. This is down from the peak estimate of over 200 million back in the 1960s. The population has declined somewhat in recent decades, likely due to habitat loss and displacement by other aggressive species like House Sparrows.
But European Starlings remain one of the most numerous songbirds in North America. Their adaptability and hardiness ensure they continue to thrive across diverse regions and habitats of the continent.
Range and Distribution in the United States
The European Starling has a broad range that covers almost the entirety of the contiguous United States. The species breeds in all the Lower 48 states. And it remains widespread through most of the country year-round, only vacating the northernmost parts of its breeding range in winter.
Breeding Range
European Starlings breed across nearly all of the Continental United States, north into Canada, and south into Mexico and Central America.
In the Lower 48 states, they breed in:
– All of the Northeast and Midwest
– Most of the Southern United States, except southern Florida
– Throughout the West Coast, Mountain West, and Southwestern states
On the East Coast, their breeding range extends north to southeastern Canada, throughout the Canadian Maritimes, Quebec, and Ontario. To the west, they breed from British Columbia to Alberta in the north down to Baja California and central Mexico in the south.
There are only a few gaps in their breeding distribution within the Lower 48, namely:
– The higher elevations of the Appalachian Mountains
– The Florida Everglades
– Parts of the desert Southwest like southern California and southern Arizona
But overall, they occupy a vast breeding range encompassing diverse habitats across the continental United States and beyond.
Year-Round Range
Through most of their expansive breeding range, European Starlings are year-round permanent residents.
They do retreat somewhat from the northern reaches of their range in winter. But they remain common through winter across most of the United States from the West Coast to the East Coast.
Here are some details on their wintering distribution:
– Throughout the southern and western U.S.
– Along the Atlantic Coast from Florida to Massachusetts
– Throughout the Midwest from Texas to the Canadian border
– Along the Pacific Coast from southern British Columbia southward
– Scattered winter populations even in subarctic areas of Alaska and Canada
So while they vacate the northernmost areas of their breeding range, they remain widespread and common through winter across the majority of the Lower 48 states. Their hardy adaptability allows them to tough out cold winters from New England to the Great Plains.
Introduced Range Beyond the U.S.
Beyond the continental United States, European Starlings have been introduced to and successfully established in:
– Hawaii – Abundant on all major islands
– Caribbean Islands – Present on islands throughout the West Indies
– Australia – Common and widespread, after introduction in the 1850s
– New Zealand – Abundant after liberation in the 1860s
– South Africa – Widespread after introduction in the late 1800s
– Fiji – Became established in early 20th century after purposeful release
– Chile – Successfully introduced in Santiago in 1928
So the story of European Starlings in the United States is mirrored by invasive populations establishing themselves around the world, through a combination of accidental and purposeful liberations.
Habitats Occupied
A major reason for the overwhelming success of European Starlings in North America is their ability to thrive in diverse habitats.
As an opportunistic species, they have adapted to fill ecological niches across the continent in:
– Urban areas
– Suburban neighborhoods
– Farmlands and rural pastures
– Forests
– Alpine areas
– Coastal habitats
– Arid deserts and shrublands
These intelligent and resourceful birds have found ways to exploit the habitats and food sources available across their invaded range in North America.
Human-Impacted Habitats
European Starlings have a strong association with human civilization across their naturalized North American range.
In fact, some of their greatest population densities occur in urban and suburban habitats, including:
– City centers
– Urban parks and greenspaces
– Suburban neighborhoods
– Landfills
– Agricultural lands
– Livestock pastures
– Roadsides
These human-altered environments provide ample food sources, including trash, crop waste, insect pests, and intentional backyard bird feeding. Urban structures also supply ample nesting sites in cavities, roof eaves, and crevices.
The abundance of food and nest sites allow exceptionally high densities of starlings in city centers, where populations can grow largely unchecked.
Natural and Semi-Natural Habitats
Beyond human settlements, European Starlings have adapted to occupy natural and semi-natural habitats:
– Open woodlands – Scattered trees with grassy understory
– Forest openings and edges – Treefall gaps, clearings, logging roads
– Alpine meadows – Found seasonally up to elevations of 4,000 meters
– Coasts – Beaches, mudflats, waterside cliffs
– Deserts – Arid landscapes with scattered vegetation
– Grasslands – Prairies, savannas, pasturelands
– Wetlands – Marshes, lakeshores, river floodplains
They may occur at lower densities than in urban areas. But they successfully nest and forage even in these natural environments across their range.
The starling’s flexible diet allows it to find adequate nutrition in many diverse ecosystem types. And their cavity nesting habits lend themselves to nesting in tree cavities in open woodlands and dead snags in deserts alike.
Overall, both anthropogenically modified and natural habitats are fair game to these highly adaptable birds. They find opportunities from busy cities to remote deserts and alpine regions.
Abundance and Population Density
European Starlings can reach exceptional abundance and density throughout their naturalized North American range. Here is an overview of their population numbers and densities:
Total Population Size
– Current total North American population: Approximately 200 million birds
– Historically reached over 200 million in the 1960s
– Remains one of the most abundant avian species on the continent
Breeding Bird Survey Estimates
The Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) provides standardized abundance data along survey routes across North America.
According to BBS data, European Starlings have:
– An estimated 72 million birds in the Lower 48 states
– An average of 45 birds detected per BBS route
– One of the highest relative abundances of any species surveyed
State Bird Counts
Christmas Bird Counts give snapshot surveys of winter bird populations. European Starling numbers according to state:
| State | 2017-2018 Christmas Bird Count |
|---|---|
| California | 1,039,165 |
| Texas | 1,290,568 |
| New York | 473,537 |
| Pennsylvania | 606,852 |
| Ohio | 1,048,185 |
These are just sample counts showing winter populations numbering in the hundreds of thousands to over one million birds in some states.
Breeding Colony Densities
European Starlings nest in dense colonies that can number thousands of pairs in a small area. Some reported densities:
– Nest boxes in an Illinois orchard: 650 nesting pairs per hectare
– Cavities in sycamore trees in Arizona: Over 16,000 occupied cavities
– Urban site in Warsaw, Poland: Up to 51,000 breeding pairs per square kilometer
These remarkable densities demonstrate the ability of starlings to pack into breeding sites at extremely high numbers under optimal conditions.
Winter Roost Counts
In winter, massive roosting flocks congregate at sites across the starling’s range:
– Rome, Oregon: 650,000 birds in 1997
– Cincinnati, Ohio: Over 1 million in 2016
– New Jersey: 500,000 birds regularly in the 1960s
Roosts numbering hundreds of thousands of birds are not uncommon in urban and wetland roost sites. Their highly social nature leads to these astoundingly enormous flocks.
So from breeding colonies to winter roosts, European Starlings have a propensity to reach exceptionally high densities and aggregate in massive flocks across North America.
Population Threats and Changes
While still abundant, European Starling populations in North America have declined from their historic highs in the 1960s. Some current threats and population pressures include:
Habitat Loss
Conversion of farmland and natural habitats to urban development has displaced starlings, especially in northeastern breeding areas.
Pesticide Use
Pesticides reduce insect numbers that starlings rely on for food, especially during the breeding season.
Displacement by Invasive Species
Other successful urban invaders like House Sparrows may compete with starlings for nest sites and other resources.
Control Programs
Localized poisoning and trapping programs aim to reduce starling flocks causing damage at feedlots, orchards, and other sites.
Climate Change
Shifting ranges may benefit starlings in northern areas but reduce populations in southern latitudes beyond their ideal climatic conditions.
Despite these pressures, European Starlings remain common and widespread across North America. But their days of exponential population growth appear to be over.
Significance and Impacts in the United States
Since their introduction, European Starlings have had significant ecological, economic, and cultural impacts across North America:
Ecological Impacts
– Compete with native cavity nesters like bluebirds and woodpeckers
– Consume crops and dispersed seeds, altering plant abundance and distribution
– Facilitate spread of non-native plants by dispersing seeds widely
– Large roosts increase nutrient inputs around roost sites
– Reduce populations of insect species like larvae and snails
Economic Impacts
– Consume cultivated fruits and grains, causing crop damage
– Transmit livestock diseases around farms
– Increase costs for cleaning and structural repairs in urban areas
– Collisions with aircraft occasionally cause damage or emergency landings
Cultural Impacts
– Inspired literary works like Henry Longfellow’s poem “The Birds of Killingworth”
– Featured in Shakespeare’s works, the original motivation for their introduction
– Provided research opportunities in dynamics of introduced species
So from displacing native species to inspiring poetry to causing headaches in cities, European Starlings have had wide-ranging impacts since their infamous introduction to North America.
Management and Control
As a firmly established introduced species, eradicating European Starlings is not considered feasible across most of North America. But localized control efforts aim to reduce damage in select areas. Control methods include:
Exclusion
Blocking access to nest and perch sites using netting, spikes, slope modifications, and other passive barriers.
Frightening Devices
Deterring birds using sounds and visuals like propane cannons, distress calls, lasers, and effigies of predators. Generally only effective temporarily.
Habitat Modification
Removing vegetation and food sources around problematic roosting or nesting sites.
Repellents
Applying chemical irritants to discourage presence – often used on ledges and roosts.
Trapping and Shooting
Selectively capturing or lethally removing starlings at sites of concern. Requires permits and non-target precautions.
Toxicants
Using poison baits to kill starlings, typically only at feedlots, dairies, and orchards with preexisting pest problems.
Sterilization
Experimental technique using chemicals or nest interference to reduce productivity. Not proven effective yet.
So while starlings are here to stay, targeted efforts can locally reduce conflicts and damage where issues arise. But completely eliminating this remarkably successful introduced species remains an unattainable goal across its established North American range.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the introduction and spread of European Starlings across North America is a remarkable story of an Old World species let loose in the New World.
A few dozen birds released in New York City in the 1890s gave rise to over 200 million across North America today. Their intelligence, adaptability, and social nature allowed them to colonize diverse habitats from northern Canada through Central America.
Abundant and widespread, though declining from historic highs, European Starlings now qualify as North America’s most successful avian invader. They cause economic damage yet provide research and cultural interest.
Regardless of how they are viewed, European Starlings appear firmly entrenched across the United States and beyond. More than a century after their release, these highly invasive birds remain as abundant and problematic as ever across most of their adopted North American homeland.
