Longitudinal migration refers to the movement of people across large distances over extended periods of time. This type of migration is often driven by major social, economic, or political changes and can result in permanent or semi-permanent relocation. Some key features of longitudinal migration include:
Long Distances
Longitudinal migration involves moving long distances, often from one country or region to another distant location. For example, immigrating from Europe to the United States or moving from a rural area to a large city over 1,000 miles away would constitute longitudinal migration.
Extended Time Frames
Longitudinal migration occurs over long periods of time, sometimes over the course of a lifetime. This sets it apart from short-term, cyclical migration patterns like seasonal migration of agricultural workers. Individuals or families that relocate permanently or semi-permanently to a new home are undergoing longitudinal migration.
Permanent or Semi-Permanent Relocation
The intention behind longitudinal migration is typically to permanently or semi-permanently relocate to a new home. Even if the move is not permanent, longitudinal migrants often stay in the new location for years or decades. This differs from cyclical migration where people move back and forth between locations periodically.
Major Push and Pull Factors
There are often major social, economic, or political pressures driving longitudinal migration. Some key push and pull factors include:
- Economic factors like jobs, wages, cost of living, and economic stability.
- Social factors like educational opportunities, quality of life, housing, healthcare, and family ties.
- Political factors like war, violence, discrimination, human rights, and political stability.
- Environmental factors like natural disasters, climate change impacts, and environmental degradation.
Common Examples
Some common examples of longitudinal migration patterns include:
- Rural to urban migration – Movement from rural areas and farms to cities for jobs.
- Suburbanization – Migration from urban centers to surrounding suburban areas.
- Immigration – International relocation from one country to another.
- Forced displacement – Being forced to relocate due to war, persecution, or disaster.
- Retirement migration – Relocating to new areas upon retirement for amenities and lifestyle.
Key Statistics and Trends
Some key statistics and trends related to longitudinal migration include:
- The United Nations estimates there were 281 million international migrants globally in 2020, a dramatic rise from 153 million in 1990.
- India, Mexico, China, Russia, and Syria were the top 5 countries of origin for international migrants in 2020.
- The United States hosted the most international migrants in 2020 at 51 million, followed by Germany at 16 million.
- Rural to urban migration has accelerated globally, with over 50% of the world’s population now living in urban areas.
- Climate change is expected to become a major driver of longitudinal migration in the coming decades.
Causes and Motivations
There are a variety of complex causes and motivations behind longitudinal migration patterns:
Economic Causes
- Employment opportunities – Migrating for jobs or better incomes.
- Financial hardship – Moving to reduce cost of living or send remittances back home.
- Education and skills training – Relocating for greater educational and career prospects.
- Business, trade, and investment opportunities – Migrating to access new markets.
Social Causes
- Family reunification – Relocating to join family members who have already migrated.
- Marriage migration – Moving for an international marriage or to follow a spouse.
- Quality of life – Migrating for better housing, environment, amenities, healthcare, education.
- Social networks – Migrating to areas with an established community from one’s origin country.
Political Causes
- Conflict, violence, or persecution – Forced displacement as a refugee or asylum seeker.
- Lack of civil liberties or human rights – Migrating in search of freedom.
- Government instability – Relocating due to risk of unrest, corruption, lack of transparency.
- Discrimination – Leaving areas of racial, ethnic, religious, or gender discrimination.
Environmental Causes
- Natural disasters – Migrating to escape environmental hazards and disasters.
- Climate change – Relocating from regions facing severe climate change impacts.
- Environmental degradation – Moving away from pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, etc.
- Water scarcity – Migrating from drought-stricken or arid areas.
Major Migration Theories
Researchers have developed several key theories to explain patterns of longitudinal migration:
Neoclassical Economic Theory
This theory focuses on migration as a form of labor mobility. It argues that migration flows from low-wage, labor-surplus areas to high-wage labor-deficit regions. Migrants move to maximize wages, reduce unemployment, and escape poor economic conditions.
Dual Labor Market Theory
This theory sees migration as driven by pull factors in destination countries. Developed economies generate demand for both high-skilled and low-skilled foreign labor to fill gaps in segmented labor markets. Migrants fill niches in lower paid service sector jobs.
World Systems Theory
This Marxist approach views migration as a consequence of capitalist global economic relations. Industrialized countries exploit resources from less developed countries, disrupting traditional economies and driving migration flows from the developing to developed world.
Network Theory
This theory highlights the role of social networks in migration processes. Each new migrant reduces the costs and risks of migration for their contacts back home. Networks create flows and chains of longitudinal migration over time.
Cumulative Causation Theory
This theory posits that migration sustains itself across time through the creation of social and economic networks. Every act of migration changes the social context to make additional migration more feasible. Migration feeds back on itself.
Theory | Main Arguments |
---|---|
Neoclassical Economic Theory | Migration flows from low-wage, labor-surplus regions to high-wage labor-deficit areas. Migrants move to maximize wages and employment opportunities. |
Dual Labor Market Theory | Developed economies generate demand for both high-skilled and low-skilled foreign labor. Migrants fill niches in segmented labor markets. |
World Systems Theory | Migration is driven by capitalist global economic relations and the exploitation of developing countries by industrialized nations. |
Network Theory | Social networks reduce migration costs and risks, creating flows and chains of migration over time. |
Cumulative Causation Theory | Migration is self-perpetuating through the creation of social and economic networks that facilitate additional migration. |
Effects on Countries of Origin
Longitudinal migration can have both positive and negative effects on migrants’ countries of origin:
Economic Effects
- Remittances provide a major economic benefit to families back home.
- Labor shortages can result from losing workforce to emigration.
- “Brain drain” occurs when highly skilled workers migrate leaving skills gaps.
- Return migrants bring back new skills, investment capital, and entrepreneurship.
Social Effects
- Diverse global perspectives and cultural diffusion occurs through returning migrants.
- Migration can separate families for long periods.
- Demographic shifts occur like aging populations from younger workers migrating.
- Loss of crucial workforce like doctors, nurses, teachers.
Political Effects
- Authoritarian regimes can benefit from “exit” of dissidents and opposition.
- Democratic diffusion can occur through migrants absorbing new political norms.
- Diaspora groups politically support their home country and lobby foreign governments.
- Loss of skilled professionals like lawyers, engineers, professors.
Effects on Destinations
Longitudinal migration also substantially impacts migrants’ destination countries:
Economic Effects
- Migrants fill low-wage jobs with labor shortages like agriculture and services.
- Highly educated, skilled migrants fill specialized labor gaps.
- Migrants often have higher labor force participation.
- Fiscal costs can arise from providing services to migrants.
Social Effects
- Cultural diversity increases from diverse migrant populations.
- Social tensions and xenophobia sometimes emerge from rapid demographic shifts.
- Migrants often expand consumer markets for products from their origin countries.
- Challenges integrating migrants and sense of displacement among some non-migrant groups.
Political Effects
- Migration policy becomes a major political issue in destination countries.
- Migrants’ voting patterns and lobbying can shift destination country policies.
- Millions obtain new political rights and civil liberties from migrating to freer societies.
- Far-right nationalist populism sometimes rises in response to high immigration.
Case Study: Mexico to U.S. Migration
One of the largest contemporary examples of longitudinal migration is movement from Mexico to the United States over the past century. Key aspects include:
- Driven by major wage and employment differentials between the two countries.
- Facilitated by social networks between migrant communities in the U.S. and relatives in Mexico.
- Includes cyclical seasonal migration for agriculture and more permanent family resettlement and employment migration to cities.
- Reached over 12 million Mexican-born migrants residing in the U.S. in 2017, with many gaining U.S. citizenship.
- Billions in remittances sent back to Mexico annually, over $40 billion in 2019.
- Recently declined due to lower Mexican birth rates, U.S. border controls, and improving economic prospects in Mexico.
This migration corridor demonstrates how longitudinal migration develops through strong push and pull factors between specific origin and destination countries, then acquires momentum through migrant networks and cumulative causation.
Case Study: Rural-Urban Migration in China
Another major example is the rural-to-urban migration that has occurred in China since the 1980s as the economy has industrialized and urbanized. Key features include:
- Driven by surplus rural labor and lack of farming opportunities in the countryside.
- Rapid growth of export manufacturing and urban industries creating job opportunities.
- Rise of 200-300 million migrant factory workers in urban areas in the 2000s.
- Major expansion of cities due to rural-urban migration.
- Marginalization and difficult conditions for many migrant factory workers.
- Hukou system limiting government benefits for rural-urban migrants.
This case demonstrates how longitudinal migration is fueled by structural forces like rural-urban imbalances and economic modernization. It also illustrates some of the challenges faced by internal migrants.
Policy Considerations
Managing longitudinal migration poses complex policy questions for both origin and destination countries. Some considerations include:
Facilitating Orderly and Legal Migration
- Creating flexible visa programs to match labor demand.
- Improving visa processing efficiency.
- Strengthening border screening while expanding legal migration channels.
- Cooperating internationally to monitor migration flows.
Protecting Migrant Rights
- Prohibiting discrimination in wages, housing, healthcare.
- Allowing family reunification across borders.
- Providing social services and education access.
- Creating pathways to citizenship and political participation.
Enabling Integration
- Funding affordable housing, language training, skill development.
- Promoting multiculturalism through arts, culture, cuisine.
- Countering xenophobia and racism against migrants.
- Creating welcoming communities and inclusive national identities.
Development Strategies for Sending Countries
- Leveraging remittance inflows for development programs.
- Facilitating return migration through bureaucratic and financial incentives.
- Collaborating with diasporas abroad for trade, knowledge transfer.
- Slowing emigration through rural development initiatives.
Future Trajectories
Looking ahead, several key factors will shape future longitudinal migration patterns:
- Global population growth in Africa and South Asia will sustain migration pressures.
- Growing wealth disparities between countries will persist in driving migration from developing to developed countries.
- Climate change is projected to displace 143 million people internally in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America by 2050, spurring international migration.
- Conflict and political repression will continue displacing refugees internationally.
- Aging societies like Europe and East Asia will demand immigrant labor to fill labor force gaps.
Overall, powerful demographic, economic, political, and environmental forces will sustain high levels of longitudinal migration in coming decades. This will require proactive policies to harness the benefits of migration while protecting social cohesion and human rights.
Conclusion
In conclusion, longitudinal migration involves moving long distances over extended time periods, often permanently or semi-permanently. It is driven by major structural forces like economic, social, political, and environmental differences between origin and destination countries. This migration strongly impacts both sending and receiving societies economically, socially, demographically, and politically. With globalization, demographic shifts, climate change, and inequality, high levels of longitudinal migration are likely to persist worldwide. This necessitates balanced policy strategies to facilitate orderly migration flows, foster integration, uphold migrant rights, and promote development.